THE TECHNIQUES OF BLOOD TRANSFUSION
The earlier operators, owing to the difficulties
introduced by the coagulation of blood outside the body, were constrained to make use of some method of direct
transfusion, the blood flowing directly from an artery of the donor into the patient's veins. This has now been
largely replaced by one of the methods of indirect transfusion, the blood being withdrawn from the donor into a
vessel in which clotting is delayed or prevented, and then injected or allowed to run into the patient's circulation.
Direct Transfusion. - The obvious method of performing a direct transfusion
is by making an end-to-end anastomosis between an artery of the donor and a vein of the recipient. The most readily
accessible artery is the radial at the wrist, and this is indeed almost the only artery that is available. The
most accessible vein is the median basilic or the median cephalic at the elbow. The operation of end-to-end anastomosis,
using an artery of so small a calibre as the radial artery at the wrist is usually found to be, is one of great
technical difficulty ; this effectually prevented transfusion from being used at all frequently. A modification
has been used by Sauerbruch and others, in which the end of the radial artery is drawn into the lumen of the vein
tiirough a slit in its wall. A suture is passed through the radial artery close to its cut end, and the needle
is then passed through the slit in the vein and out again through the wall of the vein an inch or so higher up.
Traction on the suture then pulls the artery into the vein. The artery has meanwhile been temporarily occluded
by a clip, which is removed when the artery is inside the vein, so that the blood can then flow from one to the
other. This is easier to do than the anastomosis, but, in addition to the other objections to direct transfusion
to be mentioned presently, the difficulty occurs of occlusion of the artery by the physiological process of inversion
of its coats at the cut end. This is likely to happen before much blood has passed, so that apparent success at
first is often not maintained. Sauerbruch claimed that the amount of blood that had passed could be estimated by
measuring the time taken for 1 cc. of blood to flow from the artery before it was introduced into the vein ; but
there is no proof that the rate of flow remains constant.
If direct transfusion be desired, there can be no doubt that Crile's method, introduced some fifteen years ago,
is the best to employ. After much patient work Crile perfected a method of anastomosis which ensures that no occlusion
of the vessels can take place at the site of junction. This depends on the use of a short silver tube, through
which the end, of the artery is threaded. The artery is then pulled back again outside the tube in the form of
a cuff and fixed in position. The end of the artery has thus been made rigid, and over this the vein is pulled
in its turn and fixed by a ligature. A watertight junction is thus made, and blood can flow through it without
interruptionunless clotting takes place in the vessels as the result of handling and injury to their walls. This
method has been extensively used in America, and it was the first to render the operation of transfusion a comparatively
popular one.
Various other devices for achieving the same result have been elaborated by other workers, and attention may be
drawn to those of Elsberg and Bernheim, both of which are described in the book by the latter on " Blood Transfusion."
During the war a simpler method was introduced by Colonel Andrew Fullerton, who, working at a Base Hospital in
France, found that he could get good results by
employing a thin rubber tube with a small silver cannula at either end. The apparatus was first coated on the inside
with a thin layer of paraffin wax, in order to discourage clotting within the tube, and the cannube were introduced
into the donor's artery and the recipient's vein respectively. The blood could then flow freely from one to the
other. The fact that blood was being transmitted was taken to be proved by the visible pulsation of the thin rubber
connecting-tube synchronously with the arterial
pulsations. The disappearance of this was assumed to be evidence that clotting had occurred. This method was described
by Colonel Fullerton to the surgeons working at the Casualty Clearing Stations, where blood transfusion was likely
to be of most service, but it was never used extensively. The coating of the inside of the tube with paraffin is
in itself an operation of some difficulty. Under
conditions in which any loss of time could not be permitted, success by this method was not attained with sufficient
certainty, and it, was shortly afterwards replaced by the more satisfactory methods described below. The most recent
work on direct transfusion has been done by J. M. Graham at Edinburgh, who has however reached the conclusion that
the. technique is always more difficult than
that of indirect transfusion.
.It can easily be seen, therefore, that all the known methods of direct blood transfusion present great technical
difficulty, which renders the method unsuitable for general use. There are, in addition, certain other objections
to it of an obvious nature. It is, in the first place, impossible to measure the amount of blood which has passed
from the donor to the recipient. Sometimes an indication may be obtained from the evident improvement in the condition
of the patient, acconipanied by the signs of loss of blood in the donor. More often clotting takes place, unknown
to the operator, at some point, with the result that blood ceases to pass a considerable time before the end of
the operation, and the patient has consequently received very much less blood than is supposed. It has been claimed
by Libman and Ottenberg that the amount of blood transferred may be estimated by weighing the donor before and
after the operation. This presupposes that a very accurate weighing machine is easily available, which usually
is not the case.
A second objection is the extent of the injury which is necessarily inflicted on the donor. His radial artery must
be exposed through an incision of considerable length, and must be ligatured at the conclusion of the process.
The operation becomes, therefore, a matter of some moment to the donor, who will be permanently scarred, and can
under no circumstances be used for transfusion more than twice.
A third objection is that the transfusion cannot be done with due regard to the condition of the patient. A delicate
and difficult operation has to be performed with the donor and recipient lying side by side, their arms close together.
It is therefore almost imperative that both should be on operating-tables of a convenient height. Often, however,
with an exsanguinated patient it is very important that he should not be moved from his bed, but as a bedside opera
tion direct transfusion becomes difficult indeed !
A final objection is that in some people the, radial artery is of very small calibre, so that when all preparations
have been made, and the artery exposed, it is found to be quite impossible to proceed. Another element of uncertainty
is thus introduced.
There is, therefore, little to be said in favour of direct transfusion, and much to be urged against it. This method
has, indeed, in my own opinion, come to be of historical interest only. For this reason the different methods have
only been very briefly described.
Indirect Transfusion. - The methods of indirect transfusion may be divided into those which depend upon the
use of an anticoagulant mixed with the blood and those in which the blood is given unaltered. The technique of
either process is simple compared with that of direct transfusion, though any method which makes use of whole blood
can never be quite as free from uncertainty or difficulty as one which introduces the use of an antieoagum lant.
If the blood is prevented from clotting, the chief cause of failure in performing blood transfusions is removed.
With any whole-blood method of transfusion speed is exceedingly important, frequent practice is a very great advantage,
and it is essential, as with direct transfusion, that the donor and recipient should be in close proximity to one
another, if not actually side by side.
On the other hand, the use of an anticoagulant renders speed and frequent practice of less account. The blood can
be drawn, and can then be put on one side until the best moment for giving it has arrived. Due regard may be had
to the patient's condition, since the blood can be carried about and can be given at leisure to the patient in
his bed without disturbing him and almost without his knowing it. The donor, too, is not exposed to the mental
shock of lying for some time side by side with a patient who may be in extremis, or may even expire during the
operation.
There are, however, those who consider that the use of whole blood, instead of blood which has been chemically
treated, has advantages which outweigh the possible disadvantages mentioned above. Two methods of using whole
blood are, therefore, described first; the use of anticoagulants is then described in detail, and their advantages
and possible dangers are enlarged upon.
Whole Blood Transfusion with Syringes.- It is obvious that, if blood can be drawn from the donor's
vein into a glass syringe and injepted into the recipient so rapidly that clotting has no time to occur, then a
transfusionof any quantity of blood that may be wished can be given by this simple means. The measure of the amount
of blood transfused is given by the number of syringes that have been filled and emptied. This method has been
successfully used by several workers, and it has the adVantage that no very gpecial apparatus is necessary. It
does, however, require that several syringes, ~nd more than one assistant, should be available, since clotting
will take place in the syringes, unless they be frequently washed out. There is also the possibility that clotting
may take place in the needle which is introduced into the donor's vein, since this cannot be withdrawn and replaced
for each syringeful of blood that is transferred. With practice, however, and with good assistants, the process
can be done quickly enough to avoid this. Wide-bore needles with short rubber connexions are introduced into the
veins of donor and recipient ; if, as often happens, this is difficult to do through the skin in the case of the
recipient, his vein must first be exposed through an incision and a glass or metal cannula introduced into it.
The operator then fills the syringes with blood in quick succession and hands them to his first assistant, who
injects the blood into the recipient. Blood is prevented from escaping from the needles when the syringes are disconnected
by nipping the rubber conn nexions with the fingers. The first assistant passes the empty syringes to the second
assistant, who washes them out with normal saline, and hands them back if needed to the operator. This can be done
with six 20 cc. syringes used in rotation, possibly with only four.
The most recent description of this method has been published by J. M. Graham of Edinburgh, who has introduced
an improved form of needle. This consists of a double tube; the inner tube has a needle point which is used for
puncturing the vein, and can be withdrawn into the blunt outer tube when the vein has been entered. Any further
wounding of the vein is thus avoided. In addition, movement of the needle-cannula is prevented by a bull-dog forceps
attachment, which is clipped to the skin. Graham finds it advisable to lubricate the cannula and syringes with
vaseline before being used. He also states that: "As the absence of clotting depends upon the rapidity with
which the syringes are filled and emptied, a series of syringes should be used in strict rotation, and all trace
of blood must be washed out with saline before the syringes are used again. One or two additional assistants are
necessary for this method." The disadvanta ges are evident, and it is not suitable for general use.
A modification of the method has been described by Unger, in which only one syringe is used. The barrel of this
is cooled by an ether spray so that clotting is discouraged or prevented.
Whole Blood Transfusion with Kimpton's
Tube.-The principle of this method
depends upon the use of paraffin wax as a coating for the vessel into which the blood is drawn, so that clotting
is prevented or greatly delayed. The form of the vessel has been modified by different workers, but the essentials
are the same in each. One form of the apparatus, known as the Kimpton-Brown tube, is illustrated in the accompanying
diagram. It consists of a graduated glass cylinder, of about 700 cc. capacity, the lower end of which is drawn
out into a cannula point at an acute angle with the body of the cylinder; the point is of a size convenient for
introducing into a vein and its bore large enough to allow of a free flow of blood through it. Near the upper end
is a side tube to which a rubber tube. can be attached, and an opening at the top is closed by a rubber hung. An
ordinary rubber double-bulb bellows is the only other apparatus that is needed.
The glass vessel is first sterilized in the autoclave, and then it must be coated on the inside with a thin layer
of paraffin wax. The whole success of this method depends upon this wax coating being absolutely complete right
up to the tip of the cannula at the bottom. If the tiniest area of glass be left exposed in the cannula, the process
will fail. The production of this perfect wax coating used to be exceedingly difficult of attainment without very
frequent practice. The apparatus was first raised to exactly the right temperature; sterile, melted paraffin was
then put into it, and distributed evenly over the surface, excess being allowed to run out. The apparatus was then
cooled down, and could be put away in a sterile towel ready for use, great care being taken that the lumen of the
cannula was patent and not blocked with excess of wax. A simplification of the process was introduced by the use
of a saturated solution of wax in ether. This solution is put into the vessel, which must not be heated, and is
made to run all over the surface, excess as before being allowed to escape through the lower opening. The. ether
quickly evaporates, leaving a very thin and perfect film of wax over the surface of the glass. As before, it must
be ascertained that the lumen of the cannula is patent. The apparatus is then ready for use.
The donor and recipient need not be lying close together, but they must be in the same room. A vein is exposed
in the arm of each by dissection under.a local anaesthetic. The operator then picks up the vein with a pair of
dissecting forceps, and makes an oblique cut into the lumen as in the diagram on p. 131. A flap is thus made which
is held in the dissecting forceps in the left hand or is picked up with a fine-pointed pair of artery forceps,
The Kimpton's tube is taken in the right hand, and the point of the cannula is introduced into the vein ; that
part of the lumen lying opposite the flap serves as a gutter which guides the cannula directly into the lumen,
so that it is introduced without any fumbling or delay, The cannula. is pushed on so that its widest part engages
the whole circumference of the vein, forming a joint through which blood does not leak. The cannula having been
pushed well up into the vein, the forceps holding the venous flap may be let go. At the same time air assistant
grips the donor's upper arm, or some form of tourniquet of the necessary degree of tightness is applied, so that
the veins become congested without obliteration of the arterial pulse. Blood now flows rapidly into the tube, and
the venous pressure is always sufficient to overcome the counter-pressure of the increasing head of fluid in the
tube. It is unnecessary, therefore, to produce any negative pressure within the tube with a reversed Higginson's
syringe or an exhaustion pump, which has been used by some workers. Blood is allowed to flow into the tube until
the requisite amount has been obtained. The venous congestion is then released, and at the same time the tube and
cannula, held at the lower end with the right hand in such manner that the index finger is free, is withdrawn from
the vein. At the moment of withdrawal the end of the cannula is closed with the right index finger. To prevent
heemorrhage from the donor's vein, a ligature previously put round it is tied by an assistant, or pressure on it
is maintained with a sterile swab. The operator must now, without a moment's delay, carry the tube filled with
blood over to the recipient. An opening in his vein is made by an assistant in the same manner as already described,
the finger is removed from the cannula, and its point is instantly introduced into the vein. It is now necessary
to produce some degree of positive pressure in the tube to ensure that the blood shall at once begin to flow steadily
into the vein. This is done with a rubber bellows, attached by an assistant to the upper side tube, and the level
of the blood in the tube should at once begin to fall. Great care must be taken that the positive pressure is released
before the tube is completely emptied of blood in order to avoid the obvious danger of the entry of air into the
patient's vein. When the tube is nearly empty it is withdrawn, the vein is ligatured, and the wounds in donor and
recipient are sutured. The most convenient pattern of Kimpton-Brown tube holds only about 500 cc. of blood, so
that if more is needed, the process must be repeated.
There is virtually only one cause of failure in transfusion by this method, and that is the occurrence of clotting
in the cannula or at the bottom of the tube. If it does occur at any stage of the operation, it cannot be remedied.
It may happen when the tube is nearly full; if so, the blood that has been withdrawn cannot be used. Clotting may
be due to an imperfection in the paraffin coating on the glass, but if there is any delay from any cause, it may
take place independently of this. The method is therefore never absolutely certain of success even in the hands
of an expert, and for general use it is certainly unsuitable. It was introduced into the British Army by some of
the American surgeons in 1917, and was used by the writer. under the guidance of Major Alton of the Harvard Medical
Unit during the first battle of Cambrai with good results. Many of the English surgeons, however, soon abandoned
it as a routine method in favour of anticoagulants. There are other objections to it besides its uncertainty. A
vein must be exposed by dissection in both donor and recipient, so that avoidable injury is inflicted on the former.
It is not a perfectly clean method, some blood necessarily escaping at each successive stage in the process, though
an expert can reduce this to a minimum. In the hands of a novice it may occasion a very bloody scene. The whole
operation is one of urgency, and the best interests of donor and recipient cannot always be considered.
Modifications have been introduced, such as that of Vincent, who uses an attachment with a needle instead of the
glass cannula point. This obviates some of the objections, but introduces other difficulties, such as the necessity
for coating the inside of the needle with paraffin wax. The technique can certainly be acquired, and the method
has rendered excellent service in the past, but it has no obvious advantages except the uncertain one of avoiding
chemical treatment of the blood.
Transfusion with Anticoagulants.-It will have become evident from the descriptions of the
transfusion of 'whole blood already given, how great a difficulty is introduced into the technique of these methods
by the physiological process of clotting in blood outside the body.
It is clear how much the process of transfusion would be simplified if the clotting were to be prevented. Something
has already been said in the historical sketch of the various means by which this problem was attacked, and it
need only be stated here that the most suitable substance for this purpose has been found to be sodium citrate.
This method was introduced by Lewisohn as recently as 1915, and It soon became the method of choice among most
of those who tried it.
The process of the formation of a blood clot has always been one of the great problems of physiology, and numerous
theories have been propounded to explain it. The theory accepted at the present time regards the process aas a
complicated one depending on the presence in the blood of a number of different factors. This theoretical explanation
may be represented diagramatically as follows:
The clot consistes of fibrin in which blood corpuscles
are entangled. It is clear that if any one of the reacting agents can be removed or rendered inert the clotting
cannot take place. There is only one inorganic substance taking part in the reaction, and it is this factor that
is more easily removed than any of the others. Calcium is precipitated in an insoluble form by various chemical
reagents, but it is obvious that for purposes of transfusion the formation of an insoluble precipitate is not permissible.
It is therefore necessary to use a substance which will form a soluble
compound with the calcium and which is at the same time harmless when introduced into the circulation. The only
substance which has been found at present to possess both these properties is citrate of sodium. This forms with
calcium a soluble double salt, in which calcium is rendered inert. It is usually held that the calcium to be active
must be present in the ionized form, but recent investigations by Vines into the r61e of calcium tend to modify
slightly the accepted view of its action. He has shown that calcium is present in the blood in two forms, ionized
and combined, and that both take part in the coagulation reaction. He has, in addition, demonstrated that a quantity
of anticoagulant sufficient to combine with the whole of the calcium present in a given quantity of blood is not
enough to prevent coagulation. It seems, therefore, that the anticoagulant acts by combining wilth a large organic
molecule of which calcium is only one constituent, and not merely by combining with ionized calcium. The organic
complex with which the calcium is associated possibly corresponds to the thrombokinase of the theory.
About the time that the use of the citrated blood was introduced by Lewisohn, some investigations upon animals
were carried out by -Salant and Wise in order to determine how sodium citrate was dealt with and eliminated by
the body. These observers found that it very quickly disappeared from the circulation, nearly 90 per cent. of the
salt having been got rid of within ten minutes of its intravenous injection. Part of the citrate is destroyed by
oxidation, and the rest, 30 to 40 per cent., is eliminated by the kidneys, the urine being rendered alkaline. It
was .also shown that if a very large dose was given, so large that toxic symptoms resulted, the effect was rapidly
obtained; but that if the toxic dose were not fatal, no remote effects followed. Its injection never rtsulted in
any albuminuria.
Lewisohn showed by experiment on the human subject that up to 5 grammes
of sodium citrate in the form of a 0.2
per cent. solution could be injected intravenously with the
calcium and which is at the same time harmless when introduced into the
circulation. The only
substance which has been found at present to possess both these
properties is citrate of sodium. This forms with
calcium a soluble double salt, in which calcium is rendered inert. It
is usually held that the calcium to be active
must be present in the ionized form, but recent investigations by Vines
into the ro1e of calcium tend to modify
slightly the accepted view of its action. He has shown that calcium is
present in the blood in two forms, ionized
and combined, and that both take part in the coagulation reaction. He
has, in addition, demonstrated that a quantity
of anticoagulant sufficient to combine with the whole of the calcium
present in a given quantity of blood is not
enough to prevent coagulation. It seems, therefore, that the
anticoagulant acts by combining wilth a large organic
molecule of which calcium is only one constituent, and not merely by
combining with ionized calcium. The organic
complex with which the calcium is associated possibly corresponds to
the thrombokinase of the theory.
About the time that the use of the citrated blood was introduced by Lewisohn, some investigations upon animals
were carried out by Salant and Wise in order to determine how sodium citrate was dealt with and eliminated by the
body. These observers found that it very quickly disappeared from the circulation, nearly 90 per cent of the salt
having been got rid of within ten minutes of its intravenous injection. Part of the citrate is destroyed by oxidation,
and the rest, 30 to 40 per cent., is eliminated by the kidneys, the urine being rendered alkaline. It was .also
shown that if a very large dose was given, so large that toxic symptoms resulted, the effect was rapidly obtained;
but that if the toxic dose were not fatal, no remote effects followed. Its injection never resulted in any albuminuria.
Lewisohn showed by experiment on the human subject that up to 5 grammes of sodium citrate in the form of a 0.2
per cent. solution could be injected intravenously with out any harmful results. It was also shown that this concentration
of the salt was sufficient to prevent clotting outside the body, and that the microscopic appearance of the blood
cells was not altered by the admixture of this solution.
Theoretically, therefore, the amount of citrate that should be used as an anticoagulant should be 2 grammes for
1,000 cc. of blood, or 100 cc. of 2 per cent. solution for 900 cc. of blood. In practice it is better to err on
the side of safety and to use a slight excess of citrate. This amount of citrate should be used for the 750 cc.
of blood which constitutes the ordinary maximum amount of blood used in a transfusion. For smaller quantities of
blood the amount of citrate may be correspondingly reduced.
The use of citrated blood was introduced to the British Army in France in 1917 by Oswald Robertson, who recommended
the use of a larger amount of citrate than this. His object in increasing the amount was to produce a solution
which, when diluted with the correct amount of blood, would be isotonic with it. It was thought that a hypotonic
solution might result in some damage to the red corpuscles by osmosis, and Robertson therefore recommended the
use of 160 cc. of a 3.8 per cent. solution of
citrate, which, when mixed with 750 cc. of blood, will give a solution of which the osmotic pressure equals that
of 0.9 per cent. saline solution. It may be doubted, however, whether this consideration is of more than theoretical
importance. There can be little doubt that in practice the effect of a slightly hypotonic solution, such as is
given by the solution of citrate, is negligible as regards destruction of corpuscles. If, however, it be thought
necessary, an isotonic solution may be produced by the addition of sodium chloride. Other considerations, as will
be seen shortly, weigh in favour of giving the smaller amount of citrate. The dosage to be recommended, therefore,
on practical and experimental grounds is 2 grammes of citrate, in 100 cc. of water for 900 cc. of blood, or 1 gramme
of citrate in 50 cc. of water for 450 cc. of blood or less. These proportions need not be observed very accurately.
Latitude may be used in either direction without harming either the transfused blood or the patient.
It has been stated above that sodium citrate introduced into the circulation in small quantities, such as are sufficient
for anticoagulant purposes, is non-toxic to man. In the light, however, of the extended experience of the last
four years, it is seen to be possible that this statement may not be quite literally true. Probably there is an
individual variation in the tolerance of different people to sodium citrate. Certainly in some cases a reaction
follows the injection of citrated blood. The symptoms of this reaction are a slight headache, a rise in temperature
to two or three degrees above normal, sometimes accompanied by a rigor or a sensation of chill, and an increase
in the pulse rate. The effect is, however, always very transitory, lasting only two or three hours, and is never,
in my own experience, attended by any symptoms which need give rise to anxiety for the patient's welfare ; nor
does it in any way prejudice the therapeutic results of the transfusion.
That the reaction is caused by the citrate and not
by another constituent of the transfused blood has been believed by several observers. In a case seen by the writer
a slight citrate reaction occurred in a youth who acted as blood donor. The transfusion was carried out by a modification
of the syringe method, which involved the injection at intervals of a syringeful of citrate solution into the donor's
circulation. The possibility that the reaction was produced by another factor was therefore not present in this
instance.
Nevertheless, it must be admitted that citrate has not yet been absolutely proved to be the cause of this slight
reaction in all the cases in which it occurs. Evidence has, indeed, been brought forward by Lewisohn and by Meleney
to show that citrate is definitely not responsible for the reaction. The statement is made that some reaction occurs
after 10 per cent. of all transfusions, and that this percentage is unaffected whether whole blood or citrated
blood is used. Lewisohn has himself investigated the effects in a long series of parallel cases in which different
methods were employed, and he reports that the results following the use of citrated blood were as good as with
any other method. Drinker states that reactions follow the use of citrated blood slightly more often than they
do that of whole blood, but this has not been confirmed. He was unable to find any impurity in the citrate that
might be held responsible. It is 'quite possible that all the reactions observed are in reality caused by the "
minor agglutinins " mentioned on p. 73. Meleney has noticed that the blood of some donors is more likely to
produce a reaction than that of others ; this suggests that the responsibility rests with the blood and not with
the citrate. The occurrence of a toxic reaction constitutes the only real objection to the use of citrated blood
that has yet been brought forward, but even this has not yet been fully substantiated ; in any case, the reaction
is of so little importance that it is greatly outweighed by the numerous advantages that. are jeonferred by the
use of citrate. The possibility that a citrate reaction does sometimes occur may be taken as an indication in favour
of using the smaller amount recommended by Lewisohn rather than the larger dose used by Robertson. The experience
of a great many observers has established the fact that, citrated blood is quite as effective as whole blood in
its therapeutic effects.
It is convenient to have the sodium citrate in a form ready for immediate use. I have therefore been in the habit
of keeping it in the solid form in small stoppered bottles, each containing 1 gramme of the salt. These are sterilized
at 130' C, and. can be kept indefinitely until wanted. If 450 cc. of blood or less are to be drawn, the contents
of one bottle is shaken into the transfusion flask; 50 cc, (approximately 2 oz.) of sterile warm water are added,
in which the citrate will rapidly dissolve. If more than 450 cc. of blood is to be used, the contents of two bottles
must be dissolved in 100 cc. or 4 ozs. of water. Alternatively a concentrated solution of citrate may be kept in
scaled ampoules. but the salt is less stable in solution, and I prefer to keep it in the solid form.
The ideal method of blood transfusion seems to me to require that it shall be absolutely certain of success, that
the blood shall not necessarily be injected into the patient immediately it has been drawn, so that other circumstances
besides the demands of the transfusion operation can be considered, and that no injury shall be done to the donor
beyond the puncturing of a vein. In addition to this, the method should be so simple and free from special apparatus
that it can be easily learnt and carried out by one operator without skilled assistance. All these require. ments
are fulfilled by the citrate method, and a satisfactory method of performing this will next be described. As will
be seen, the blood can be drawn with the minimum amount of injury to the donor; when drawn, it can be put on one
side, for several hours if necessary, and then given to the patient at whatever may be judged to be the most favour.
able moment the whole process can be carried out by a single operator without any assistance; and finally, but
little practice is needed to make success certain every time.
The transfusion apparatus known as "Robertson's
bottle," first described by Oswald Robertson in 1918, is the basis of most citrate methods. This could be
easily improvised in a field laboratory, and was extensively used during the last year of the war. The apparatus
consisted of a glass bottle of about a litre capacity, the mouth of which was closed by a rubber bung. Through
the bung three glass tubes passed. One, connected by a short rubber tube with a wide-bore needle, ended about an
inch from the bottom of the bottle; through this the blood flowed into the bottle. A second tube, which reached
to the angle between the side and the bottom of the bottle, was connected by a rubber tube with a cannula ; through
this the blood was injected into the patient. The third tube reached only just beyond the bung, and to this was
attached a Higginson's syringe, by means of which either negative or positive pressure would be produced inside
the bottle, according to which end of the syringe was attached.
It is unnecessary to describe this apparatus any further, for it was found by myself and others that it could be
with advantage modified in the direction of simplicity. It is in the first place unnecessary in drawing the blood
to create any negative pressure if a needle of a large enough bore (2 or 3 mm.) be used, and, further, it is an
advantage not to have the needle attached in any way to the bottle, which, as the blood flows into it, has to be
freely agitated in order to mix the blood quickly with the citrate. The needle may, therefore, be attached to a
rubber tube of suitable length which hangs freely into the collecting vessel as shown in the diagram:
The third tube of "Robertson's bottle" may be dispensed with by using a conical flask provided with a side tube to which a rubber bellows can be attached. The delivery tube is therefore the only one that need pass through the rubber bung. This tube should have. an angle in it inside the flask so that its lower end reaches into the corner, and the extremity should be ground down obliquely so that, although it reaches right into the corner, it does not become occluded by too accurate contact with the surface of the vessel. By this means any wastage of blood is prevented. I have found it a very great convenience to introduce into the delivery tube just outside the flask an air-lock, (This embodies the same principle as the "dropper" designed by R.D. Laurie) the value of which will he seen shortly. To the barrel of this air-lock a rubber tube with a cannula is attached. Close to ihe cannula is some form of clip. The. whole apparatus is illustrated in the figure, and with the help of this its use may be readily understood.
Injection of blood, showing use of airlock.
The particular form of needle which I have been in the habit of using is shown below.
Transfusion Needle
Its lumen has a diameter of 2 mm., and the steel
tube ends off flush with the wide shoulder to which the rubber tube is attached. This avoids any recess within
the needle in which clotting may begin. The point of the needle should not be too long, in order that it may not
wound the opposite side of the vein when it has been introduced. For ease of introduction, however, the extremity
should be very sharp and should have cutting edges. The point and edges should be touched up on a bevelled hone
each time before the needle is used. The needle should be kept ready for immediate use in liquid paraffin. I have
found that the most convenient way of keeping it is to put it into a test-tube containing paraffin, which is plugged
with cotton-wool and sterilized at 130' C. in the hot air oven or by careful heating over a flame. In this way
the needle may be kept ready for an indefinite time without any chance of its rusting. When it is taken out of
the test-tube, a sterile rubber tube is slipped on to it and it is then ready for use. As an additional precaution,
a small quantity of paraffin may be drawn up into the rubber tube, which is thus lubricated on the inside, but
this is not absolutely necessary. The tube must be sterilized with the rest of the apparatus, as rubber is destroyed
by liquid paraffin.
When the donor's arm has been congested by gripping it above the elbow, or better by the application of a tourniquet'
drawn to the requisite degree of tightness, a suitable vein, usually the median basilic, is chosen. The area of
puncture is washed with ether and a very small quantity, 2 to 8 minims, of 2 per cent. novocain is introduced over
the vein with a hypodermic syringe. If a larger quantity is used, the vein may become obscured, but this small
amount may be dispersed by a few moments' pressure with the finger, and is usually enough to anxsthetize the very
small area of skin that is to be operated upon. A tiny cut in the skin is then made with the point of a scalpel,
and the needle is pushed through into the vein. If the donor's vein is a large one, such as is usually found in
the type of donor recommended in a previous chapter, this is quite easy to do. To make it equally easy if the vein
be smaller, it has been suggested by Watson that the vein may be fixed by pushing an ordinary fine sewing-needle
through the skin at right angles to the line of the vein, into the vein, and out again through the skin. This needle
is held with the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, while the right hand pushes the transfusion needle into
the lumen of the vein just below it. When the needle is in the vein, the blood flows out rapidly through the tube
which hangs into the flask containing the citrate, as illustrated. This flask is held by an assistant, who mixes
the blood with the citrate by gently swinging it. If a properly adjusted tourniquet is kept on the donor's arm
while he works his forearm muscles by clasping and unclasping his hand, a flow of blood is obtained which is fast
enough to prevent clotting in the needle, and indeed is quite as fast as most donors can tolerate. Blood up to
1,000 cc. may be collected in this way in ten to twenty minutes. If the vein be of a good size, it makes no difference
whether the needle be insertedtowards the heart or away from it. When enough blood has been collected, the tourniquet
is removed, the needle is withdrawn, and pressure is maintained with a sterile swab over the site of puncture for
a few minutes. No further bleeding will take place after this, and no suture is needed. The donor's part in the
operation is then finished. He should be made to lie on his back for a few hours afterwards, and given plenty of
fluids, but beyond this no special. precautions are necessary.
When the blood has been drawn, and has been satisfactorily mixed with the citrate, the flask may be put on one
side until it is wanted, its mouth having.been closed with a cotton-wool stopper. If the blood is wanted at once,
the flask may be stood in a basin of warm water to keep it at body temperature. Otherwise it may be allowed to
cool, and can be warmed up again when it is to be administered. The citrated blood may be kept for a considerable
time without undergoing any appreciable change in its therapeutic value. It has been given twelve hours or more
after being taken with the same good effects as if it had been newly drawn. During the war advantage was taken
of this fact to anticipate during quiet times the necessity for many transfusions during times of stress. The blood
was drawn in some quantity and kept for several hours in an ice chest, so that it was readily available during
the expected battle. Recently I have administered to a woman who had been operated upon for a ruptured ectopic
gestation 600 cc. of citrated blood which had been kept for twenty-seven hours at room temperature after it was
drawn. The effect was in every way as satisfactory as if it had been freshly drawn, and there was no sign of any
toxic reaction. So far as I know, blood had not ever been kept so long as this before being used, but there does
not seem to be any objection to so doing.
When the blood is to be given, the delivery tube with the rubber bung is inserted in the flask, and the corpuscles
which have gravitated to the bottom are distributed again. through the fluid by gently shaking it. In administering
the blood, it is very often advisable to inject it through a cannula which is tied into a vein. If the patient
is a woman, it will usually be found that the veins are small and buried in fat. Also many transfusions will be
given to combat the collapse due to shock and haemorrhage, in which case the veins will be empty and the use of
a cannula will be found essential. Sometimes, however, the patient will have large veins which can be readily distended;
this may sometimes be encouraged by keeping the arm for half an hour beforehand in a bath of hot water. Under these
circumstances the blood can be given through a needle introduced in exactly the same way as has already been described
in the case of the donor. In the following account of the process it will be assumed that the use of a cannula
is necessary.
When choosing a vein in the patient,the operator must be guided by,circumstances, Usually the median basilic will
be the most convenient, and if, in a collapsed patient, this is invisible, previous knowledge of the position of
the vein mustdetermine the site of the incision. If another operation is being done simultaneously upon the upper
part of the patient's body, it may be more convenient to use the internal saphenous vein in Searpa's triangle,
or even one of the superficial veins about the ankle.
Whatever vein be chosen, the line of the incision is first infiltrated with a small quantity of a 2 per cent. solution
of novocain. The vein is then dissected out, and is ligatured near the lower end of the incision. A ligature is
also put loosely round the upper part. The operator now takes the barrel of the air-lock, which, together with
the attached rubber tube and cannula, is filled with 0.9 per cent. saline solution, all air bubbles being carefully
excluded. The. tube is clipped near the cannula, so that the whole system, including the cannula, remains filled
with the fluid. The form of the cannula used will depend upon the operator's particular preference, but a type
which I have found very convenient is shown in the accompanying figure. It is made of glass, and its extremity
is ground down at an angle, which makes it very easy to introduce into the vein. The slight constriction near this
end ensures that it can be securely tied into the vein and that no leakage round it shall occur.- This is very
necessary, because there is sometimes a considerable pressure to be overcome, due to venospasm in a collapsed patient,
before th blood, begins to flow.
TRANSFUSION CANNULA
An oblique cut is now made in the vein, as shown in the illustration, the cannula is introduced, and the upper ligature is tied.
INSERTION OF CANNULA IN VEIN
The barrel of the air-lock, with its contained saline solution, is then fixed firmly on to the rubber bung, so that the nozzle of the delivery tube projects into the saline solution. Meanwhile, an assistant has fixed a rubber bellows on to the side tube of the flask; a short piece of glass tubing loosely packed with cotton-wool should be interposed between the bellows and the flask to prevent any particles of dust being blown over into the flask from the bellows, which is not sterilized, The clip near the cannula is released, and some positive pressure is produced inside the flask by means of the bellows. The citrated blood then rises in the delivery tube, and a corresponding quantity of saline solution is displaced from the air-lock into the patient's circulation. The blood then flows from the nozzle of the delivery tube into the air-lock, and the remainder of the saline solution is driven on into the patient. Finally the blood flows steadily through the cannula, and the rate at which it is flowing can be observed in the air-lock.
The presence of this air-lock facilitates, as has
been seen, the introduction of the cannula into, the vein, since there is no leakage of blood to obscure the operation.
In additioil, the operator can see at a glance whether the'blood is flowing in properly, and can regulate the rate
of flow to a nicety by varying the pressure in the flask by means of the bellows. If a very slow injection is required,
the blood can even be. made to run drop by drop. If the patient is suffering from acute anaemia, the blood can
be pumped in rapidly, 750 cc. of blood being given in the course of twenty minutes. If, on the other hand, the
patient has a plethora of fluids, such as is seen in some cases of secondary anaemia, the blood must be given very
much more slowly than this, since it is dangerous rapidly to increase the blood volume. A half to three-quarters
of an hour must be occupied in giving 500 cc., and even then the patient may complain of a sensation of tightness
in the chest and of dyspncea, due to embarrassment of the right heart during the transfusion. This complaint, however,
is usually transient, and will disappear quickly if the injection be stopped for a few minutes.
It has been said that the lower end of the delivery tube reaches into the angle between the side and the bottom
of the flask. When therefore the flask is nearly empty, it should be tilted so that very nearly the whole of the
blood can be forced up the tube. When the flask is quite empty, the blood in the barrel of the air-lock must be
carefully watched, and when its level has fallen to the bottom of this, the clip must be applied to the tube above
the cannula. By ~ this means no blood is wasted except the small quantity which remains in the tube below the air-lock.
As soon as the tube has been clipped the caRnula is withdrawn, the vein is ligatured above the opening into its
lumen, and the edges of the skin incision are sutured.
Transfusions carried out in this way can be performed with uniform success. The technique is simple and straightforward
at every stage, and can be easily demonstrated and learnt. It is, in addition, a perfectly clean process, and not
a single drop of blood need be spilt. Any method which involves the injection of- blood under pressure is open
to the objection that it is possible to over-look the fact that the flask has been emptied and to kill the patient
by injecting air into his veins. This can, how. ever, only happen as the result of great carelessness on the part
of the operator. The presence of the air-lock affords an additional safeguard, as it can hardly escape the operator's
notice that blood has ceased to flow from the nozzle of the delivery tube.
The method may also be criticized on the ground that some damage is caused to, the corpuscles of the donor's blood
by the shaking which is necessary to mix it with the
citrate solution. This objection is, in my opinion, theoreti,eal rather than practical. If,. however, it be desired
to avoid any such shaking, the apparatus designed by A. E. Stansfeld and described by him in 1918 may be used.
This ensures that the citrate and the blood flow into the containing vessel together, so that no further mixm*g
is needed. The apparatus is more cumbrous, more fragile, and less easy to clean and to sterilize than that described
above. In the hands of an expert it will give excellent results, but its use requires some little practice, and
it is therefore not so well adapted for general use.
The whole of my own apparatus, as described above, may be obtained from Messrs. Allen & Hanburys, Wigmore Street,
London, W.1, who also provide a convenient box for carrying it.